2020

Permanent URI for this collectionhttps://repository.iuls.ro/handle/20.500.12811/170

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Semen traits in Cornish roosters during the process of physiological ageing
("Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași, 2020) Sima, Lucica; Supeanu, Teodora-Diana; Mărgărit, Mihai-Cristian; Cioaric, Mădălina; Dojană, Nicolae; Bălăceanu, Rosalie-Adina
In this paper, we determined the evolution of ejaculate volume, sperm concentration, motility and viability along with the evolution of the activity of some enzymes (TGO, alkaline phosphatase, ATPase and lactic dehydrogenase) in seminal plasma of Cornish roosters at 30, 42, 57 and 63 weeks of age. The monitored parameters showed a specific evolution that characterizes the physiological ageing process in Cornish roosters. Thus, the volume of ejaculate showed a significant decrease (P = 0.011) from 0.39 to 0.32 microliters. The number of sperm per ejaculate decreased from 0.86 to 0.29x109 (P = 0.002). Motility decreased from 69% to 41% (P = 0.001) and sperm viability decreased from 89 to 74% (P = 0.00). The percentage of abnormal spermatozoa decreased not significantly, from 96 to 94%, some types of abnormalities increasing and others decreasing in frequency during the monitoring period. The activity of the monitored enzymes characterized the decrease of the anaerobic metabolism of spermatozoa and the increase of the membrane permeability of the spermatozoa in the physiological ageing process.
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Anatomical peculiarities of the broad-snouted caiman’s skull and vertebral column bones (Caiman latirostris)
("Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași, 2020) Munteanu, Alexandru; Covașă, Costică-Toader
It was noticed that the caiman skull is diaspid, presenting two temporal fossae, one superior (dorsal) and one inferior (lateral). The cranial cavity is reduced compared to the development of the skull, with the orbits and nostrils having a lateral orientation. The occipital has a single articular condyle for the atlas. In front of the first vertebra, atlas, there is an undeveloped proatlas vertebra. The cervical vertebrae have developed transverse processes. There is also a ventral creast on the body of the cervical vertebrae. The thoracic vertebrae have detached transverse processes, which grow towards the end of the region, serving alone for the articulation with the ribs. The sacral region is short, and consist in two vertebrae which articulate with the ilium. The caudal vertebrae bear relatively long neural and haemal spines, forming a ventral arch for the blood vessels.
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Anatomical peculiarities of the broad-snouted caiman’s limb bones (Caiman latirostris)
("Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași, 2020) Covașă, Costică-Toader; Munteanu, Alexandru
The aim of the study was the highlight of the specific characters of the limb bones in broad-snouted caiman, and for that, the investigations were conducted on the bones which were collected from a dead broad-snouted caiman that belonged to Bârlad Zoo. It was a male caiman, 24 years old. For the analysis, the bones were prepared by boiling and cleaning. It was noticed the particular conformation of the girdles, in case of the thoracic one, the scapula and the coracoid bone being almost similar developed, and both of them form the glenoid cavity to joint with humerus. It exist also an elongated interclavicular bone. The humerus is curved, ulna is more massive than the radius, between them existing a large radio-ulnar arcade, these aspects being similar to birds. There are 5 carpal bones, 3 in the proximal row, and 2 in the distal one, the radial carpal bone being merged with the intermediate one, resulting the most developed carpal bone. The thoracic metapodium includes 5 metacarpal bones, the 5th one being more reduced. The ilium is dorsally placed to ischium, the two bones participating to form the acetabular cavity (foramen). The pubis, more reduced, is cranially placed to ischium with which it articulates. The femur is very curved, and caudo-medially is highlighted the 4th trochanter. The fibula is well developed, but the tibia is more massive, and between them is a large interosseous space. The pelvic basipodium includes the calcaneum and astragalus, well developed, in the proximal row and two bones in the distal row. The 5th metatarsal bone is rudimentary, the others being well developed. The acropodium includes 5 digits for the thoracic limb and 4 in the pelvic one, the number of the phalanges having one more than the number of the digit, except the 5th digit of the thoracic limb. The conformation of the limb caiman bones is generally similar to other crocodiles.
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The surgical management of a diaphragmatic hernia in a cat – case report
("Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași, 2020) Neamțu Ciubotariu, Alexandra; Burtan, Liviu-Cătălin; Drugociu, Dan-Gheorghe
A diaphragmatic hernia is an internal hernia, characterized by a defect of the musculotendinous plate between the thoracic and abdominal cavities, which allows the abdominal content to protrude into the thoracic cavity. This case study emphasizes the importance of choosing the propitious time in the surgical repair and also the anaesthesia principles in diaphragmatic herniorrhaphy. A 2-year-old intact female cat was referred with the following symptoms: open-mouth breathing, tachypnea, tachycardia, pale mucous membranes and a dyspnoea increasing when changing position. The definitive diagnosis was confirmed through thoracic and abdominal radiography and the surgical procedure was performed after the patient’s condition was stable.
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Preliminary results regarding the prevalence of CTX-M genes identified in E. coli strains isolated from slaughtered pigs
("Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași, 2020) Pasat Tipișcă, Marinela; Cozma, Andreea-Paula; Aniță, Dragoș-Constantin; Aniță, Adriana-Elena; Savuța, Gheorghe
Extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing enterobacteriaceae and AmpC cephalosporinases are of major importance for public health because these bacteria have low sensitivity to antibiotics such as extended spectrum cephalosporins, which are antimicrobials widely used both in human and in veterinary medicine. Such strains, especially Escherichia coli (E. coli), have been frequently isolated from pigs too, production animals being considered carriers with major implications in the transmission chain of these strains in humans. The aim of this study was to characterise the molecular substrate of ESBL-positive E. coli strains isolated from slaughtered pigs from 3 slaughter houses from the Moldova area by identifying the CTX-M genes. After collection, the samples were primarily processed for phenotypical identification and confirmation of ESBL-positive E. coli strains. Bacterial DNA extraction for the target strains was carried out using the “boiled preps” method. Identification of the blaCTX-M (blaCTX-M-9; blaCTX-M-1) genes was carried out by PCR using the specific protocol. Molecular investigations revealed that out of the 118 analysed samples, the blaCTXM- U gene was identified in 61% (72/118). Characterisation of the CTX-M groups signalled the presence of the CTX-M-1 group in 44/72 (61.11%) of the analysed strains, and the presence of the CTX-M-9 group in 18/72 (25%) of the strains. This study emphasised a high prevalence of CTX-M enzyme-producing E. coli strains isolated from the caecum of slaughtered pigs.
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Preliminary investigations on prevalence of ESBL-production Escherichia coli strains in swine from Botoșani County
("Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași, 2020) Pasat Tipișcă, Marinela; Cozma, Andreea-Paula; Aniță, Adriana-Elena; Aniță, Dragoș-Constantin; Savuța, Gheorghe
Administration of antimicrobials to food-producing animals increases the risk of higher antimicrobial resistance in normal intestinal flora. The present preliminary study was conducted to investigate the presence of extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli strains in healthy swine from Botoșani County. During 2016-2018, a total of 87 samples of luminal contents of gut sections (cecal) were collected and tested. Fifty-one (51,72%) E. coli isolates were identified as ESBL-producing strains. These preliminary results reflect the selective pressure, caused by intense and less prudent use of the antimicrobials in swine production in our country. Moreover, commensal E. coli can be a reservoir for antimicrobial resistance genes, which can be transferred to pathogenic bacteria. Therefore, resistance genes transferring from farm to fork represent a public health emerging danger by the potential of producing difficultto- treat pathogens.
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Goat breeding and herds health status in the Northeast area of Romania – a short review
("Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași, 2020) Mihai, Iuliana; Henea, Mădălina-Elena; Rusu, Oana-Raluca; Grecu, Mariana
The goat is a species that managed to attract attention to the breeders due to the fact that they are suitable for an efficient holding in small households, have a high lactogenic capacity, high prolificacy, precocity and high degree of adaptability and resistance, occupying areas where the natural resources and field conditions do not allow the growth of other species, which is why the goat herds in our country is constantly growing. Thus, the goat population in Romania increased from 1009794 animals in 2005 to 2057309 in December 2018. Our country occupying the third place in the hierarchy of Member States of the European Union, in 2019, following countries with tradition in the goat breeding, such as United Kingdom and Spain. The most numerous are the Carpathian native goats and Banat White, a crossbreed obtained from the Carpathian and Saanen breeds, followed by French Alpine and Saanen, imported lately to improve milk production. To date, in Romanian literature had been reported researches on the subject of diseases and health problems in goats, there are studies on paratuberculosis, contagious ecthyma, infectious respiratory disorders, gangrenous mastitis, contagious agalactia, bluetongue, caprine arthritis and encephalitis, and parasitic infections as coccidiosis, tapeworm (Monezia, Cestoda) and round worms (Nematoda - Trichostrongylus sp.) infestation, etc. Although Romania has a national program for urveillance and control program for goat health status, the problems in livestock goat diagnosed and published in recent years, are poor and changing, unsystematic and insufficient. The epidemiological situation in Romania has undergone significant changes in recent years, our country is the southeastern border of the European Union, which implies an increased risk for all major animal diseases and, of course, monitoring programs and greater control than in other Member States of the European Union. An effective animal health program is an essential part of a successful dairy goat management program.
listelement.badge.access-status Open Access ,
Monitoring lameness in a dairy cows farm
("Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași, 2020) Anton, Alina
Lameness has an important impact on milk production, welfare and farm profitability. Monitoring cattle was done in a farm A with 1000 Holstein from Bacău County, in the east of Romania. The indices used to evaluate the herd lameness were: incidence rate of lameness for treated cases, recurrence rate of lameness for treated cases, lameness index, monthly incidence rate and monthly recovery rate of lameness. Data collected from each lame cow included its unique identification, a locomotion (mobility) score, the identity of the lame leg(s) and any other pertinent information. We were focused on four most common lesions associated with lameness: sole ulcers, white line disease, digital dermatitis and interdigital necrobacillosis. In the farm A, percentage of lame cow with score 2 was 25, and the percentage of severely lame (score 3) was 5, much higher comparing to the targets. All other lameness indices were much higher comparing to the targets of a normal farm, which may explain the fertility problems and a decreased milk production during the last 2 years. Once lame cows have been identified, they should be examined, diagnosed and treated as soon as possible. A combination of early detection and effective treatment may have a number of benefits to the cow, herd and farm.
listelement.badge.access-status Open Access ,
A simple brain atlas of the adult zebrafish (Danio rerio)
("Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași, 2020) Petrovici, Adriana; Solcan, Carmen
The zebrafish and its brain popularity in scientific research created the necessity of a quick and simple atlas for the examination of the entire central nervous system structure. Sagittal sections of 5 μm were obtained from 10 adult both male and female zebrafish. Luxol Fast Blue-Cresyl Violet staining was performed in serial brain sections from whole adult zebrafish brain for examination of myelin and neuron structure and localization. Neurons can be well established with distinct cell bodies and nuclei in examined cerebral structures from both hemispheres. Cresyl violet is used to stain the neuronal cell bodies and processes which appear in a pink to violet color. Luxol fast blue stain is used to identify myelin in nervous tissue which gets stained in bright blue. The serial brain sections staining with Luxol fast blue-Cresyl Violet gives a quick and complete view of the central nervous system morphology and could be a useful tool in toxicology studies or in the research of neurological and neurodegenerative diseases.
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Malignancy – aspects to consider in histopathological diagnosis
("Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași, 2020) Pașca, Aurelian-Sorin; Hrițcu, Ozana-Maria
The histopathological exam is the most important tool when formulating a diagnosis in tumoral diseases. When we consider the examination of a tumor, the prognosis of the disease often depends of the character of that neoplasia (benign or malignant). To properly evaluate the future behavior of a neoplasia means to carefully observe and characterize several specific features. An abnormal differentiation degree of the cells can sometimes determine the presence of abnormal, monstruous cells, with little homogeneity between tumoral cells and a high rate of anisocytosis, anisokaryosis, anisonucleoliosis, multiple nuclei and various types of indentations or expansions of the structures of the cells. The mitotic index is another factor to take into consideration. A high mitotic index will always indicate a malignancy, and if it is associated with abnormal mitotic figures, the severity of the disease is even worse. Along with a multitude of other factors that need to be evaluated when establishing a diagnosis, from a histopathological point of view, the two mentioned criteria are the ones that need the most attention.
listelement.badge.access-status Open Access ,
Adaptive bioplastic disorders of the kidney in dogs – review
("Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași, 2020) Pașca, Aurelian-Sorin; Saftencu Pașca, Paula-Maria; Hrițcu, Ozana-Maria
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Motility parameters of equine epididymal spermatozoa after 24 hours intra-epididymal exposure to lidocaine using two commercial extenders
("Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași, 2020) Rus, Mirela; Groza, Ioan-Ștefan; Peștean, Cosmin; Pall, Emoke; Ilaș, Vlad-Alexandru; Daradics, Zsofia; Crecan, Cristian; Morar, Iancu
Epididymal spermatozoa is the last source for gamete rescue in case of emergency castration or sudden death of a valuable stallion, thus an ideal harvesting and preservation technique should be employed. Routinely, 2% lidocaine intraparenchymatous administration is used to provide analgesia prior to castration, but studies on the effect of lidocaine on epididymal spermatozoa motility parameters are limited. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of lidocaine on equine epididymal spermatozoa, after 24 hours intraepididymal cool storage using two commercial extenders. We hypothesized that intraepididymal prolonged exposure to lidocaine, might affect motility parameters of epididymal stallion spermatozoa and that different extenders might have an impact. Sperm was collected from 20 epididymides of routinely castrated 3 year old KWPN stallions. 4 stallions received 10 ml 2% lidocaine intraparenchymatous 10 minutes prior to castration and 6 stallions were not medicated. Testicles were transported to an equipped facility and cooled stored for 24 hours. From each sample an aliquot was diluted in a commercial egg yolk based extender, and another in a commercial extender containing defined milk proteins. Motility parameters were registered 30 minutes after dilution, computer assisted. There were no statistical differences between motility parameters of spermatozoa exposed to lidocaine and spermatozoa not exposed, however progressive motility and linearity significantly differed among the two extenders.
listelement.badge.access-status Open Access ,
Impact of staphylococcus aureus and methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) on uterine disease in dairy cattle after parturition
("Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași, 2020) Sikra Cherșunaru, Alexandra-Andreea; Rîmbu, Cristina-Mihaela; Drugociu, Dan-Gheorghe
The aim of this study was to identify vaginal flora in Black and White Romanian cows diagnosed with puerperal endometritis. The cows studied came from two dairy farms, were in the first 4 weeks post-partum and had various puerperal diseases with variable pathological evolution. The dinamics of isolation of different bacterial species from lochia or vaginal discharges was made in four periods of the puerperium. Bacteriological examination was performed in accordance with routine laboratory techniques, including typical colony morphology on usuale culture media, chromogenic agar, Gram stain, type of hemolysis, characteristic growth on Baird-Parker (BP) agar and biochemical tests. In the course of puerperium, approximately 22,2% of microorganisms detected in the 18 cases were represented by the Staphylococcus aureus, what means that may be a significant pathogen of puerperal infection. Isolation in 11,1% of cases of methicillin-resistant stains of Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is important in terms of direct impact on human and animal health.
listelement.badge.access-status Open Access ,
Some arguments for and against animal experimentation - a literature review
("Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași, 2020) Spătaru, Mihaela-Claudia
Preclinical tests on animals are mandatory when new biomedical products are launched on the market, all of these having the main goal to improve the lives of humans, animals or to improve the environment. In this sense, it is necessary to identify or to create the ”animal model” that is as close as possible to the human physiology and psychology, taking in account that each species has its peculiarities that make it difficult or sometimes impossible to extrapolate the results from animal to human. However, some of human diseases have been cured just through research on animals so, this paper is bringing for and against arguments regarding animal experimentation. On the other hand, poor communication of research results, minimization of harm in favor of glorious benefits, underestimation of issues of experimental ethics are some of the most claimed subjects by people and researchers.
listelement.badge.access-status Open Access ,
A case of mixed granulomatous inflammation in a turkey hen
("Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași, 2020) Hrițcu, Ozana-Maria; Pașca, Aurelian-Sorin
Granulomatous inflammation may be caused in birds either by various infectious diseases (with the formation of Langhans type giant cells) or by the presence in different tissues and organs of foreign bodies (with the formation of Muller type giant cells), the most common being uric acid crystals in gout. We examined the cadaver of a two year old turkey hen that had multiple yellowish-white nodular formations located in the liver. Histopathological examination showed that these were formed mainly through an infectious type granulomatous inflammation caused by a chronic colibacillosis with the presence of bacterial colonies and necrotic debris in the center and Langhans giant cells with foamy cytoplasm. The liver also had early stage foreign body granulomas caused by the precipitation of uric acid crystals in the parenchyma. We were then able to establish that the bird suffered from both coligranulomatosis and also visceral gout, as a consequence of improper microclimate and feeding parameters. It is uncommon to find both types of granulomatous inflammations in the same patient or even in the same organ. The tophy gout had not yet started to form Muller type giant cells, but still, the architecture of the granulomas was clear enough to be compared to the adiacent infectious type one.
listelement.badge.access-status Open Access ,
Cytopathological diagnostic in canine lymphoma
("Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași, 2020) Hrițcu, Ozana-Maria; Pașca, Aurelian-Sorin
Lymphomas are tumors that may be frequently diagnosed in dogs. The main suspicion for this neoplasic disease arises when lymphnodes become enlarged without the existence of any obvious antigenic stimulation. Fine needle aspiration from enlarged lymphnodes with the preparation of cytological slides allows for an early and relatively precise diagnostic in lymphoma cases. We used this technique, along with the May Grunwald Giemsa staining method to search for cytological and nuclear abnormalities that might indicate the evolution of a lymphoma in dogs that presented with enlarged lymphnodes. We found a constant mixture of medium sized and large lymphocytes, multinucleated cells, anisokaryosis, various nuclear shapes (multiple indentations), multiple visible nucleoli, variable cytoplasmic/nuclear ratios and cytoplasmatic chromatic properties (basophilia, light basophilia). Also, the mitotic index measured per 5 HPF fields (x400) was sometimes a strong indicative of malignancy. All of the cases diagnosed with lymphoma based on cytopathological examination were later confirmed through histopathological examination. This suggests that this simple and fast technique that is applicable also in small animal practices may be used to diagnose lymphomas in dogs with a relative high accuracy.
listelement.badge.access-status Open Access ,
Performing a renal biopsy in dogs
("Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași, 2020) Pașca, Aurelian-Sorin; Hrițcu, Ozana-Maria; Saftencu Pașca, Paula-Maria; Moroșan, Șerban
Performing a renal biopsy has its reasons in establishing a specific diagnosis, evaluating the severity of the renal lesions and establishing an etiological treatment. Kidney diseases have a high incidence rate in dogs and cats. In order to make a differential diagnosis of a chronic or acute renal insufficiency or of a glomerular lesion , the anamnesis, clinical examination and lab results are not always enough. Renal biopsy is always necessary to establish the degree of severity, a definitive diagnostic and a treatment plan. The succes of the treatment is related to knowing the type and extension of the lesion. The literature indicates that the risks and complications that follow a renal biopsy are extremely low. Still, how we choose the patient and the proper technique may considerably decrease the risk and increase the succes rate of the biopsy. In the final stages of kidney disease, assesed through clinical and laboratory exams, renal biopsy is useless. In the less advanced stages the diagnosis offered by a histopathological examination of the biopsy fragment may proove to be an important factor in achieving a succesfull treatment of the glomerular illness in both dogs and cats. The studies that have approached this subject show that kidney biopsy performed in patients that suffer from a chronic renal insufficiency are not recommended, due to the fact that the risks are higher.
listelement.badge.access-status Open Access ,
Mouse models and Sars-Cov-2
("Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași, 2020) Moroșan, Șerban; Cozma, Andreea-Paula; Dascălu, Mihaela-Anca; Pașca, Aurelian-Sorin
Since December 2019, a novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 has emerged and rapidly spread throughout the world, resulting in a global public health emergency. COVID-19 is causing a major once-in-a century global pandemic. The emergences of coronaviruses have caused a serious global public health problem because their infection in humans caused the severe acute respiratory disease and deaths. Much more serious than SARS-CoV in 2002, the current SARS-CoV-2 infection has been spreading to more than 213 countries, areas or territories and causing more than 31 million cases and 962,518 deaths (update september 2020). Intensive research efforts have focused on increasing our understanding of viral biology of SARS-CoV-2, improving antiviral therapy and vaccination strategies. The lack of vaccine and antivirals has brought an urgent need for an animal model. The animal models are important for both the fundamental research and drug discovery of coronavirus.
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Humanized mouse models and human viruses
("Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași, 2020) Moroșan, Șerban; Cozma, Andreea-Paula; Dascălu, Mihaela-Anca; Pașca, Aurelian-Sorin
Well-developed mouse models are important for understanding the pathogenesis and progression of immunological response to viral infections in humans. Moreover, to test vaccines, anti-viral drugs and therapeutic agents, mouse models are fundamental for preclinical investigations. Human viruses, however, seldom infect mice due to differences in the cellular receptors used by the viruses for entry, as well as in the innate immune responses in mice and humans. In other words, a species barrier exists when using mouse models for investigating human viral infections. Developing transgenic (Tg) mice models expressing the human genes coding for viral entry receptors and knock-out (KO) mice models devoid of components involved in the innate immune response have, to some extent, overcome this barrier. Humanized mouse models are a third approach, developed by engrafting functional human cells and tissues into immunodeficient mice. With an increase in the advancement of modern techniques used for genetic manipulation, humanized mice have become an important asset. They are becoming indispensable for analyzing human viral diseases since they nearly recapitulate the human disease. These mouse models also serve to test the efficacy of vaccines and antiviral agents. The development of humanized mouse models offers a preclinical in vivo platform for further characterization of human viral infections and human immune responses triggered by these virus particles. This review highlights recent progress in utilizing humanized mice to decipher human specific immune responses against viral tropism.
listelement.badge.access-status Open Access ,
Particularities of olfactory system in zebra fish (Danio rerio)
("Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași, 2020) Daneleț, Gabriela-Alexandra; Solcan, Carmen
Histological study of olfactory bulbs and peripheric olfactory organs were made on 10 adult zebra fiskes (Danio rerio), both sexes, using paraphin embeding method and HEA and PAS stain. Zebra fish is a very good model for studying the mecanisms for odour detection, olfactory changes of the environement and behavioural effects of them. Olfactory system in zebra fish is formed by a pair of olfactory peripherical organs or rosets, situated in nasal cavity, conected at the olfactory bulbs. Sensorial region of the rosete have an characteristic pseudostratified columnar epithelium consisting mainly from sensitive olfactory neurons. Olfactory bulb is a cerebral structure situated in the most rostral region of the anterior brain, conected to olfactory bulb by a short olfactory nerf. It is the central receptor when the olfactory informations are prepared and sent to telencephalic regions.

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